Blog

Gymnasium (and variations of the word) is a term in various European languages for a secondary school that prepares students for higher education at a university. It is comparable to the US English term preparatory high school or the British term grammar school. Before the 20th century, the gymnasium system was a widespread feature of educational systems throughout many European countries.

The word γυμνάσιον (gumnásion), from Greek γυμνός (gumnós) ‘naked’ or ‘nude’, was first used in Ancient Greece, in the sense of a place for both physical and intellectual education of young men. The latter meaning of a place of intellectual education persisted in many European languages (including Albanian, Bulgarian, Czech, Dutch, Estonian, Greek, German, Hungarian, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Russian, Scandinavian languages, Croatian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian and Ukrainian), whereas in other languages, like English (gymnasium, gym) and Spanish (gimnasio), the former meaning of a place for physical education was retained.

School structure

[edit]

Because gymnasiums prepare students for university study, they are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out between the ages of 10 and 13. In addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek.

Some gymnasiums provide general education, while others have a specific focus. (This also differs from country to country.) The four traditional branches are:

• humanities (specializing in classical languages, such as Latin and Greek)
• modern languages (students are required to study at least three languages)
• mathematics and physical sciences
• economics and other social sciences (students are required to study economics, world history, social studies or business informatics)

Curricula differ from school to school but generally include literature, mathematics, informatics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art (as well as crafts and design), music, history, philosophy, civics/citizenship,^{[note 1]} social sciences, and several foreign languages.

Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but also on producing well-rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. For example, the German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all.

Today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, with the rights to continue education in a gymnasium. Here, the prefix pro– is equivalent to pre-, indicating that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies.

History

[edit]

In Central European, Nordic, Benelux and Baltic countries, this meaning for “gymnasium” (that is a secondary school preparing the student for higher education at a university) has been the same at least since the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The term was derived from the classical Greek word γυμνάσιον (gymnasion), which was originally applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to physical exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with and came to mean an institution of learning.^[1]

This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, and from there passed into the Netherlands and Germany during the 15th century. In 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium.^[2] In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered all schools with the right to send their students to the university to bear the name of gymnasium. By the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires.^[1] In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of these three empires.

By country

[edit]

Albania

[edit]

In Albania, a gymnasium (Albanian: Gjimnaz) education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called Albanian: Matura Shtetërore. The final test is standardized at the state level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities.

These can be either public (state-run, tuition-free) or private (fee-paying). The subjects taught are mathematics, Albanian language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, computer science, the natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and the social sciences (sociology, ethics, psychology, politics and economy).

The gymnasium is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university. While in European countries a gymnasium tend to be the highest level of high school, in Albania a gymnasium is used to describe high school as a general category. Three quarters of Albanian high school students attend a gymnasium, while just a quarter attend vocational schools.^[3]

Austria

[edit]

In Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. Historically, three types existed. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin. The Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages. The usual combination is English, French, and Latin; sometimes French can be swapped with another foreign language (like Italian, Spanish or Russian). The Realgymnasium emphasizes the sciences. In the last few decades, more autonomy has been granted to schools, and various types have been developed, focusing on sports, music, or economics, for example.

Belarus

[edit]

In Belarus, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, which provides advanced knowledge in various subjects. The number of years of instruction at a gymnasium is 11. However, it is possible to cover all required credits in 11 years, by taking additional subjects each semester. In Belarus, gymnasium is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university.

Czech Republic and Slovakia

[edit]

See also: Education in Slovakia § Secondary education

In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, gymnázium (also spelled gymnasium) is a type of school that provides secondary education. Secondary schools, including gymnázium, lead to the maturita exam. There are different types of gymnázium distinguished by the length of study. In the Czech Republic there are eight-year, six-year, and four-year types, and in Slovakia there are eight-year and four-year types, of which the latter is more common. In both countries, there are also bilingual (Czech or Slovak with English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, or Russian; in Slovakia, bilingual gymnáziums are five-year) and private gymnáziums.

Germany

[edit]

Main article: Gymnasium (Germany)

German gymnasiums are selective schools. They offer the most academically promising youngsters a quality education^[4] that is free in all state-run schools (and generally not above €50/month cost in Church-run schools, though there are some expensive private schools). gymnasiums may expel students who academically under-perform their classmates or behave in a way that is often seen as undesirable and unacceptable.

Historically, the German Gymnasium also included in its overall accelerated curriculum post-secondary education at college level and the degree awarded substituted for the bachelor’s degree (Baccalaureate)^[5] previously awarded by a college or university so that universities in Germany became exclusively graduate schools. In the United States, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of prestigious universities, such as the University of Michigan, as a model for their undergraduate college programs.^[6]

Pupils study subjects such as German, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, arts, music, physical education, religion, history and civics/citizenship/social sciences^{[note 1]} and computer science. They are also required to study at least two foreign languages. The usual combinations are English and French or English and Latin, although many schools make it possible to combine English with another language, most often Spanish, Ancient Greek, or Russian. Religious education classes are a part of the curricula of all German schools, yet not compulsory; a student or their parents or guardians can conscientiously object to taking them, in which case the student (along with those whose religion is not being taught in the school) is taught ethics or philosophy. In-state schools, a student who is not baptized into either the Catholic or Protestant faiths is allowed to choose which of these classes to take.^[7] The only exception to this is in the state of Berlin, where the subject ethics is mandatory for all students and (Christian) religious studies can only be chosen additionally. A similar situation is found in Brandenburg where the subject life skills, ethics, and religious education (Lebensgestaltung, Ethik, Religionskunde, LER) is the primary subject but parents/guardians or students older than 13 can choose to replace it with (Christian) religious studies or take both. The intention behind LER is that students should get an objective insight on questions of personal development and ethics as well as on the major world religions.^[8]

For younger students nearly the entire curriculum of a gymnasium is compulsory; in higher years additional subjects are available and some of the hitherto compulsory subjects can be dropped, but the choice is not as wide as in other school systems, such as US high schools.

Although some specialist gymnasiums have English or French as the language of instruction, at most gymnasiums lessons (apart from foreign language courses) are conducted in Standard German.^{[citation needed]}

The number of years of instruction at a gymnasium differs between the states. It varies between six and seven years in Berlin and Brandenburg (primary school is six years in both as opposed to four years in the rest of Germany) and eight in Bavaria, Hesse and Baden-Württemberg among others. While in Saxony and Thuringia students have never been taught more than eight years in Gymnasium (by default), nearly all states now conduct the Abitur examinations, which complete the Gymnasium education, after 13 years of primary school and Gymnasium combined. In addition, some states offer a 12-year curriculum leading to the Abitur. These final examinations are now centrally drafted and controlled (Zentralabitur) in all German states except for Rhineland-Palatinate and provide a qualification to attend any German university.

Italy

[edit]

This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (February 2019)

In Italy originally the ginnasio indicated a type of five-year junior high school (age 11 to 16) and preparing to the three year Classical Lyceum (age 16 to 19), a high school focusing on classical studies and humanities. After the school reform that unified the junior high school system, the term ginnasio stayed to indicate the first two year of Liceo Classico, now five years long. An Italian high school student who enrolls in Liceo Classico follows this study path: Quarta Ginnasio (gymnasium fourth year, age 14), Quinta Ginnasio (gymnasium fifth year, age 15), Prima Liceo (lyceum first year, age 16), Seconda Liceo (lyceum second year, age 17) and Terza Liceo (lyceum third year, age 18). Some believe this still has some sense, since the two-year ginnasio has a differently oriented curriculum from the Liceo. Ginnasio students spend the majority of their schooling studying Greek and Latin grammar, laying the bases for the “higher” and more in depth set of studies of the Liceo, such as Greek and Latin literature and philosophy.

In July 1940 the fascist Minister of National Education Giuseppe Bottai got a bill of law approved that abolished the first three years of the gymnasium and instituted a unique path of studies for children aged from 12 to 14. The last two years of the gymnasium kept the previous denomination and the related scholastic curriculum for the following decades.^[9]

Netherlands

[edit]

In the Netherlands, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, offering the academically most promising youngsters (top 5%) a quality education that is in most cases free (and in other cases at low cost).^{[citation needed]} It consists of six years, after eight years (including kindergarten) of primary school, in which pupils study the same subjects as their German counterparts, with the addition of compulsory Ancient Greek, Latin and Klassieke Culturele Vorming (Classical Cultural Education), history of the Ancient Greek and Roman culture and literature. Schools have some freedom in choosing their specific curriculum, with for example Spanish, Philosophy and Technasium, a very technical and highly demanding course, being available as final exams. Usually, schools will have all classes mandatory in switching combinations for the first three or so years (with the exception of Technasium which is a free choice from the second year onward), after which students will choose their subjects in the directions of Economics and Society, Culture and Society, Nature and Health, Nature and Technology or Technology. The equivalent without classical languages is called Atheneum, and gives access to the same university studies (although some extra classes are needed when starting a degree in classical languages or theology). All are government-funded. See Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (in English) for the full article on Dutch “preparatory scientific education”.

Nordic and Baltic countries

[edit]

In Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Latvia, Norway and Sweden, gymnasium consists of three years, usually starting at the year the students turn 16 years old after nine or ten years of primary school. In Lithuania, the gymnasium usually consists of four years of schooling starting at the age of 15–16, the last year roughly corresponding to the first year of college.

Most gymnasiums in the Nordic countries are free. Universal student grants are also available in certain countries for students over 18.

In Denmark (see also Gymnasium (Denmark)), there are four kinds of gymnasiums: STX (Regular Examination Programme), HHX (Higher Business Examination Programme), HTX (Higher Technical Examination Programme) and HF (Higher Preparatory Examination Programme). HF is only two years, instead of the three required for STX, HHX, and HTX. All different types of gymnasiums (except for HF) theoretically gives the same eligibility for university. However, because of the different subjects offered, students may be better qualified in an area of further study. E.g. HHX students have subjects that make them more eligible for studies such as business studies or economics at university, while HTX offer applied science and mathematics that benefit studies in Science or Engineering. There is also EUX, which takes four to five years and ends with both the HTX (or HHX for EUX-business) exam and status as a journeyman of a craft.^[10] Compared to the somewhat equivalent A-levels in the UK, Danish gymnasiums have more mandatory subjects. The subjects are divided into levels, where A-levels usually run through all three years, B-levels usually two years and C-levels one year (apart from PE which exists as a C-level lasting tree years).

In Sweden, there are two different kinds of branches of studies: the first branch focuses on giving a vocational education while the second branch focuses on giving preparation for higher education. While students from both branches can go on to study at a university, students of the vocational branch graduate with a degree within their attended program. There are 18 national programs, 12 vocational and 6 preparatory.^[11][12]

In the Faroe Islands, there are also four kinds of gymnasiums, which are the equivalents of the Danish programmes: Studentaskúli (equivalent to STX), Handilsskúli (HHX), Tekniski skúli (HTX) and HF (HF). Studentaskúli and HF are usually located at the same institutions as can be seen in the name of the institute in Eysturoy: Studentaskúlin og HF-skeiðið í Eysturoy.

In Greenland, there is a single kind of gymnasium, Den gymnasiumsle Uddannelse (Ilinniarnertuunngorniarneq), that replaced the earlier Greenlandic Secondary Education Programme (GU), the Greenland Higher Commercial Examination Programme (HHX) and the Greenland education to Higher Technical Examination Programme (HTX), which were based on the Danish system. This program allows a more flexible Greenland gymnasium, where students based on a common foundation course can choose between different fields of study that meet the individual student’s abilities and interests. The course is offered in Aasiaat, Nuuk, Sisimiut and Qaqortoq, with one in Ilulissat to be opened in 2015, latest in 2016 if approved by Inatsisartut.

In Finland, the admissions to gymnasiums are competitive, the accepted people comprising 51% of the age group.^[13] The gymnasiums concludes with the matriculation examination, an exam whose grades are the main criteria for university admissions.

Switzerland

[edit]

In Switzerland, gymnasiums (Gymnasien, gymnases) are selective schools that provide a three- to six-year (depending on the canton) course of advanced secondary education intended to prepare students to attend university. They conclude with a nationally standardized exam, the maturité or Maturität, often shortened to “Matura or Matur“, which if passed allows students to attend a Swiss university. The gymnasiums are operated by the cantons of Switzerland, and accordingly in many cantons they are called Kantonsschule (cantonal school).

Former Yugoslav countries

[edit]

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Slovenia, a gymnasium education takes four years following a compulsory eight or nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called Matura. In these countries, the final test is standardized at the state level and can serve as an entrance qualification for universities.

There are either public (state-run and tuition-free), religious (church-run with secular curriculum and tuition-free) or private (fee-paying) gymnasium schools in these countries.

The subjects taught are mathematics, the native language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, informatics (computers), the natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and the social sciences (sociology, ethics or religious education, psychology, politics, and economy). Religious studies are optional. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia and North Macedonia, Latin is also a mandatory subject in all gymnasiums, just as Ancient Greek is, with Latin, in a certain type of gymnasiums called Classical gymnasiums (klasična gimnazija).

In all of the countries, the gymnasium (gimnazija/gjimnazi) is generally viewed as a destination for best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university studies, while other students go to technical/vocational schools. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, elementary school grades, or a combination of the two.

Countries with gymnasium systems

[edit]

This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2008)

• Albania: Gjimnazi three years, after nine years (four years primary school and five years lower high school) of education, ends with Matura Shtetërore at the age of 18.
• Argentina: Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, 6 years; Rafael Hernández National College of La Plata, five years (formerly 6 years), after 7 years of primary school; and Gymnasium UNT eight years, ends at the age of 18.
• Austria: eight years, after four years of primary school; or four years, after primary school and four years of Hauptschule; ending in matura at the age 18.
• Belarus: 7 years, after four years of primary school.
• Belgium: 6 years, starting at age 11/13, after 6 years of primary school, ends at the age of 18 where students progress to a university.
• Bolivia: Deutsche Schule Mariscal Braun La Paz, 6 years, ends with Abitur.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina: four years, starting at age 14/15 after nine years in elementary school, ends with Matura.
• Brazil: Humboldt Schule of São Paulo is a German school in São Paulo. There are more gymnasiums in the country and some of them receive resources^{[further explanation needed]} from the German government.
• Bulgaria: five years, after 7 years of primary school. Currently graduation after passing at least two Maturas.
• Colombia: Gimnasio Moderno (all-male, traditional Pre-K to 11th grade private school located in Bogotá, Colombia. Its founders were inspired by the original Greek to name the first “Gimnasio” in Colombia).
• Croatia: four years, starting at age 14/15 after eight years in elementary school, five different educational tracks: opća gimnazija (general education), klasična gimnazija (focused on Latin and Ancient Greek), jezična gimnazija (focused on modern languages), prirodoslovna gimnazija (biology, chemistry, physics) and prirodoslovno-matematička gimnazija (mathematics, physics and computer science), ends with Matura exam. Students of all tracks have compulsory classes in Latin and English as well as in at least one additional foreign language (most commonly German, Italian, Spanish and French).
• Cyprus: three years, starting at age 12 and following 6 years of elementary school. Compulsory for all students. Followed by the non-mandatory Lyceum (ages 15 to 18) for students with academic aspirations or Secondary Technical and Vocational Lyceum TVE for students who prefer vocational training. After successfully completing the program, students of TVE are awarded a School Leaving Certificate, which is recognized as equivalent to a Lyceum School Leaving Certificate (three-grade Senior Secondary School).
• Czech Republic: four years, starting at age 15 or 16; 6 years, starting at age 13 or 14 (not usual); eight years, starting at age 11 or 12; all ending in matura.
• Denmark: three years, or four years for athletes who are part of the Team Danmark elite sports program, and musicians, artists and actors who have chosen MGK (“Musical Elementary Course”), BGK (“Visual Arts Elementary Course”) or SGK (“Performing Arts Elementary Course”), usually starting after 10 or 11 years of primary school. This is more like a prep school or the first years of college than high school. Everyone is eligible to go to a US high school, but one needs to be deemed competent to get into a gymnasium. (For more information, see Gymnasium (Denmark).) Gymnasium is also available in an intensive 2-year program leading to the Højere Forberedelseseksamen (“Higher Preparatory Exam”), which doesn’t give the same eligibility for university.
• Estonia: three years, after nine years of primary school.
• Faroe Islands: three years, usually starting after 9 or 10 years of primary school. The system is similar to the Danish system. A gymnasium-level education is also available in an intensive 2-year programme leading to Hægri fyrireikingarpróvtøka (“Higher Preparatory Exam”).
• Finland: lukio (educational language is Finnish) or gymnasium (educational language is Swedish) takes two–five years (most students spend three years),^[14] after nine years of primary school (Finnish: peruskoulu, Swedish: grundskola); lukio starts usually in the autumn of the year when the student turns 16 and ends with the matriculation examination; lukio is compulsory since 2021 but students can choose between Lukio and Ammattikoulu(vocational school) and its entrance can be competitive, especially in larger cities.
• France: the French equivalent of a gymnasium is called a lycée (three years, after 5 years of primary school and 4 years of secondary school, age 15/18). The last year (called terminale) ends with passing the baccalauréat, an examination to enter university.
• Germany: formerly eight–nine years depending on the state—now being changed to eight years nationwide, starting at 5th (at age 11), Abitur in 12th or 13th grade; for more information, see Gymnasium (Germany).
• Greece: three years, starting at age 12 after six years of primary school. Compulsory for all children, it is followed by the non-mandatory General Lyceum (ages 15–18), or the Vocational Lyceum (EPAL). The EPAL School Leaving Certificate is recognized equally as a Senior Secondary School Leaving Certificate (high school).
• Hungary: four/six/eight years, starting after eight/six/four years of primary school, ends with Matura; see Education in Hungary
• Iceland: usually 3–4 years, starting at age 15 or 16 after 10 years of elementary school.^[15]
• Israel: five schools termed “gymnasium” located in Tel Aviv, Rishon LeZion, Jerusalem, and Haifa.
• Italy: ginnasio is the name of the two first years of Liceo Classico
• Kyrgyzstan: 7 years, after 5 years of primary school
• Latvia: three or six years, depending if you start from the 7th or 10th grade.
• Liechtenstein: ends with Matura.
• Lithuania: gimnazija—usually 4 years: 2 years of basic school after 4 years of basic school and 2 years of secondary school, sometimes eight years: 6 of basic school and 2 of secondary school, 12 years in rural areas or in art/music gymnasiums.
• Luxembourg: usually 7 years, starting at age 12–13 after six years of primary school.
• Montenegro: 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after nine years in elementary school, ends with Matura.
• Netherlands: six years, starting at age 11–13, after eight years of primary school. Prepares for admission to university. gymnasiums in the Netherlands have compulsory classes in Ancient Greek and/or Latin; the same high level secondary school without the classical languages is called Atheneum. They are both variants of VWO.
• Norway: the traditional but now discontinued gymnasium led to the completion of examen artium. This has now been succeeded by a 2-, 3-, or 4-year program (videregående skole), depending on course path taken, starting at the age of 15/16, culminating with an exam that qualifies for university matriculation (studiekompetanse).
• Poland: gimnazjum was the name of the 3-year Polish compulsory middle school, starting for pupils aged 12 or 13, following six years of primary school. Gimnazjum ended with a standardized test. Further education was encouraged but optional, consisting of either 3-year liceum, 4-year technikum, or 2 to three years of vocational school (potentially followed by a supplementary liceum or technikum). In 2017, Poland reverted to a compulsory 8-year primary school, optionally followed by a 4-year liceum, a 5-year technikum, or 2 to three years of vocational school.
• Romania: 4 years, starting at age 10 ends with Diploma de Capacitate at the age of 14. Primary education lasts for four years. Secondary education consists of: 1) lower secondary school education organized in a gymnasium for grades 5 to 8 and lower cycle of high school or arts and trades schools (vocational) for grades 9 and 10; 2) upper secondary school education organized in Ciclul superior al liceului for grades 11, 12, and 13 followed, if necessary, by an additional high school year for those who want to move from vocational training (grade 10) to upper secondary school education. High school education (lower cycle of high school and upper secondary school education) offers three different orientations (academic, technological, specialization).
• Russia
  • Imperial Russia: since 1726, eight years since 1871. Women’s gymnasiums since 1862; 7 years plus an optional 8th for specialisation in pedagogy. Progymnasiums: equivalent to 4 first years of gymnasium.
  • Russian Federation: full 11 or 6–7 years after primary school. There are very few classical gymnasiums in modern Russia. The notable exception is the St Petersburg Classical Gymnasium where Latin, Ancient Greek, and mathematics are the three core subjects. In the majority of other cases, Russian gymnasiums are schools specialised in a certain subject (or several subjects) in the humanities (e.g. Chelyabinsk School No. 1).
• Serbia: 4 years, starting at age 14/15 after eight years in elementary/primary school. There are three most common types of gymnasiums: 1) general gymnasium (општа гимназија) which offers broad education in all sciences; 2) natural sciences (природно-математички смер); and 3) social studies (друштвено-језички смер), available all over Serbia, and a few specialised ones, e.g. mathematics (математичка гимназија)—only one in all of Serbia, in Belgrade; sports (спортска гиманзија)—just two in Serbia; language (филолошка гимназија)—a total of four in Serbia; and military gymnasium (војна гимназија)—only one in all of Serbia. In the end, all students take a final exam—a Matura. Completion of the Gymnasium is a prerequisite for enrollment into a university. English and another foreign language (from the selection of German, French, Russian (most common languages), Italian or Spanish (far less common) or Chinese and Japanese (only philological gymnasiums have these two^[16]) in addition to the mother tongue, and in case of minorities also Serbian) are compulsory throughout.
• Slovakia: 4 years starting at age 15/16 after completing nine years of elementary school (more common); eight years starting at age 11/12 after completing 5 years of elementary school; both end with Maturita.
• Slovenia: 4 years, starting at age 14/15; ends with Matura.
• South Africa: Paul Roos Gymnasium is a well-known gymnasium for boys in the town of Stellenbosch. The school is a boarding school, based on the classic British boarding schools; however, it was more influenced by the Protestant faith, hence the German Gymnasium. Foreign languages such as French, German, Mandarin, and Latin are studied; Afrikaans and English are compulsory. School in South Africa: 5 years, starting at age 13/14, at a secondary institution, after 7 years of primary school, ends with Matric.
• Sweden: Upper secondary school in Sweden lasts for three years (formerly four years on some programmes). “Gymnasium” is the word used to describe this stage of the education system in Sweden. The National Agency for Education has decided that gymnasium is equivalent to the international upper secondary school.^[17] The gymnasium is optional and follows after nine years in elementary school. However, the Swedish term högskola (“high school”) may cause some confusion. In Swedish it is used almost synonymously with “university,” with the only difference being that universities have the right to issue doctoral examinations. In the case of technical universities, these could also be called högskola even when they have right to issue doctoral examinations (e.g., Chalmers tekniska högskola, officially named a “Technical University” in English; Lunds tekniska högskola, Faculty of Engineering, Lund University; and Kungliga tekniska högskolan, Royal Institute of Technology”). A högskola is often located in cities with lower population, except for the technical ones that can be found also in the largest cities.
• Switzerland: usually 4 years after nine years of compulsory schooling (primary and secondary I); it is also possible to attend a so-called Langzeitgymnasium which lasts 6 years, following a six-year primary schooling; the Gymnasium ends with Matura at the age of 18/19.
• Ukraine: eight years, starting after four years of primary school.
• United Kingdom: historically, grammar schools have been the English equivalent of the gymnasium, selecting pupils on the basis of academic ability (usually through the 11+ entrance examination in year 6, at the age of 10 or 11) and educating them with the assumption that they would go on to study at a university; such schools were largely phased out from 1965 under the Wilson and Heath governments, and less than 5% of pupils now attend the remaining 146 grammar schools. The UK therefore no longer has a widespread equivalent of the gymnasium. The exception is Northern Ireland and some parts of England within the counties of Buckinghamshire, Lincolnshire, and Kent, which have retained the system. Grammar schools are also to be found in some London boroughs, North Yorkshire, Essex, Lancashire, Warwickshire, and Devon in varying degrees. Many private, fee-paying private schools, including all those commonly referred to as “public” schools, seek to fulfill a similar role to the state grammar school if the scholar has the ability (and thus to the gymnasium in other countries) and, most importantly, the money to attend them.
• United States
  • Public school: As school districts continue to experiment with educational styles, the magnet school has become a popular type of high school. Boston Latin School and Central High School in Philadelphia are the two oldest public schools in the country and the oldest magnet schools. As the concept has not become entrenched in the various American educational systems, due partly to the federal—rather than unitary—style of education in the United States, the term may vary among states.
  • Private school: The equivalent among private schools is the preparatory school.

Final degree

[edit]

Depending on country, the final degree (if any) is called Abitur, Artium, Diploma, Matura, Maturita or Student and it usually opens the way to professional schools directly. However, these degrees are occasionally not fully accredited internationally, so students wanting to attend a foreign university often have to submit to further exams to be permitted access to them.

Relationship with other education facilities

[edit]

In countries like Austria, most university faculties accept only students from secondary schools that last four years (rather than three). This includes all Gymnasium students but only a part of vocational high schools, in effect making Gymnasium the preferred choice for all pupils aiming for university diplomas.

In Germany, other types of secondary school are called Realschule, Hauptschule and Gesamtschule. These are attended by about two thirds of the students and the first two are practically unknown in other parts of the world.^{[citation needed]} A Gesamtschule largely corresponds to a British or American comprehensive school. However, it offers the same school-leaving certificates as the other three types—the Hauptschulabschluss (school-leaving certificate of a Hauptschule after 9th grade or in Berlin and North Rhine-Westphalia after 10th grade), the Realschulabschluss (also called Mittlere Reife, school-leaving certificate of a Realschule after 10th Grade) and Abitur (also called Hochschulreife, school-leaving certificate after 12th Grade). Students who graduate from Hauptschule or Realschule may continue their schooling at a vocational school until they have full job qualifications. It is also possible to get an erweiterter Realschulabschluss after 10th grade that allows the students to continue their education at the Oberstufe of a gymnasium and get an Abitur. There are two types of vocational school in Germany: the Berufsschule, a part-time vocational school and a part of Germany’s dual education system, and the Berufsfachschule, a full-time vocational school outside the dual education system. Students who graduate from a vocational school and students who graduate with a good grade point average from a Realschule can continue their schooling at another type of German secondary school, the Fachoberschule, a vocational high school. The school leaving exam of this type of school, the Fachhochschulreife, enables the graduate to start studying at a Fachhochschule (polytechnic) and in Hesse also at a university within the state. Students who have graduated from vocational school and have been working in a job for at least three years can go to Berufsoberschule to get either a Fachabitur (meaning they may go to university, but they can only study the subjects belonging to the “branch” (economical, technical, social) they studied in at Berufschule) after one year, or the normal Abitur (after two years), which gives them complete access to universities.

Gymnastics is a type of sport that includes physical exercises requiring balance, strength, flexibility, agility, coordination, artistry and endurance.^[1] The movements involved in gymnastics contribute to the development of the arms, legs, shoulders, back, chest, and abdominal muscle groups. Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills.^[2]

The most common form of competitive gymnastics is artistic gymnastics (AG); for women, the events include floor, vault, uneven bars, and balance beam; for men, besides floor and vault, it includes rings, pommel horse, parallel bars, and horizontal bar.

The governing body for competition in gymnastics throughout the world is the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). Eight sports are governed by the FIG, including gymnastics for all, men’s and women’s artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics (women’s branch only), trampolining (including double mini-trampoline), tumbling, acrobatic, aerobic, and parkour.^[3] Disciplines not recognized by FIG include wheel gymnastics, aesthetic group gymnastics, TeamGym, men’s rhythmic gymnastics (both the Spanish form which is identical to the women’s version and the Japanese version which is a different sport) and mallakhamba.

Participants in gymnastics-related sports include young children, recreational-level athletes, and competitive athletes at all skill levels.

Etymology

[edit]

The word gymnastics derives from the common Greek adjective γυμνός (gymnos),^[4] by way of the related verb γυμνάζω (gymnazo), whose meaning is to “train naked”, “train in gymnastic exercise”, generally “to train, to exercise”.^[5] The verb had this meaning because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing.

History

[edit]

See also: History of physical training and fitness

Gymnastics can be traced to exercises performed in Ancient Greece, specifically in Sparta and Athens. Exercise of that time was documented by Philostratus’^[6] work Gymnastics: The Ethics of an Athletic Aesthetic. The original term for the practice of gymnastics is from the related Greek verb γυμνάζω (gumnázō), which translates as “to train naked or nude,” because young men exercised without clothing. In ancient Greece, physical fitness was highly valued among both men and women. It was not until after the Romans conquered Greece in 146 BC that gymnastics became more formalized and was used to train men in warfare.^[7] On Philostratus’ claim that gymnastics is a form of wisdom, comparable to philosophy, poetry, music, geometry, and astronomy,^[6] the people of Athens combined this more physical training with the education of the mind. At the Palestra, a physical education training center, the disciplines of educating the body and the mind were combined, allowing for a form of gymnastics that was more aesthetic and individual and that left behind the focus on strictness, discipline, the emphasis on defeating records, and a focus on strength.^[8]

Don Francisco Amorós y Ondeano—a Spanish colonel born on 19 February 1770, in Valencia, who died on 8 August 1848, in Paris—was the first person to introduce educative gymnastics in France. The German Friedrich Ludwig Jahn began the German gymnastics movement in 1811 in Berlin, which led to the invention of the parallel bars, rings, the horizontal bar, the pommel horse and the vault horse.^[9]

Germans Charles Beck and Charles Follen and American John Neal brought the first wave of gymnastics to the United States in the 1820s. Beck opened the first gymnasium in the US in 1825 at the Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts.^[10] Follen opened the first college gymnasium and the first public gymnasium in the US in 1826 at Harvard College and in Boston, Massachusetts, respectively.^[11] Neal was the first American to open a public gymnasium in the US, in Portland, Maine, in 1827.^[12] He also documented and promoted these early efforts in the American Journal of Education^[13] and The Yankee, helping to establish the American branch of the movement.^[14]

The Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG) was founded in Liege in 1881.^[15] By the end of the nineteenth century, men’s gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first modern Olympic Games, in 1896.^[16] From then until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric, gymnastics, which included, for example, synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, and horizontal ladder. During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events. Elin Falk revolutionized how gymnastics was taught in Swedish schools between 1910 and 1932.^[17] The first women’s Olympic competition was limited, involving only synchronized calisthenics and track and field. These games were held in 1928 in Amsterdam.

By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for men and women had been standardized in a modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 15) had been agreed upon. In 1930, the first UK mass movement organization of women in gymnastics, the Women’s League of Health and Beauty, was founded by Mary Bagot Stack in London.^[18] At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues. Television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men’s and women’s gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent.

In 2006, a new points system for Artistic gymnastics was put into play. An A Score (or D score) is the difficulty score, which as of 2009 derives from the eight highest-scoring elements in a routine (excluding Vault), in addition to the points awarded for composition requirements; each vault has a difficulty score assigned by the FIG. The B Score (or E Score), is the score for execution and is given for how well the skills are performed.^[19]

FIG-recognized disciplines

[edit]

See also: List of gymnastics competitions and Major achievements in gymnastics by nation

The following disciplines are governed by FIG.

Artistic gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Artistic gymnastics

Artistic gymnastics is usually divided into men’s and women’s gymnastics. Men compete on six events: floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel bars, and horizontal bar, while women compete on four: vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise. In some countries, women at one time competed on the rings, horizontal bar, and parallel bars (for example, in the 1950s in the USSR).

In 2006, FIG introduced a new point system for artistic gymnastics.^[19] Unlike the old code of points, in which there was a maximum 10.0 score, there are two separate scores that are added to produce the final score. The first is the execution score, which starts at 10 and has deductions taken for execution mistakes, and the second is the difficulty score, which is open-ended and based on what elements the gymnasts perform. It may be lower than the intended difficulty score if the gymnast does not perform or complete all the skills, or they do not connect a skill meant to be connected to another. Scoring for national developmental levels or outside of the FIG competition system may continue to use the 10.0 system; for example, US women’s collegiate gymnastics still uses the 10.0 system.^[21]

Competitive events for women in artistic gymnastics

[edit]

Vault

[edit]

Main article: Vault (gymnastics)

In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a 25 metres (82 ft) runway, to take off onto a vault board (or perform a roundoff or handspring entry onto a vault board). They then land momentarily inverted on the hands-on the vaulting horse or vaulting table (pre-flight segment) and propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing (post-flight segment). The post-flight segment may include one or more saltos, or twisting movements. A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is a commonly performed vault in the higher levels of women’s gymnastics. Other vaults include taking off from the vault board with both feet at the same time and either doing a front handspring or round-off onto the vaulting table.

In 2001, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue, horse, or vaulting table. The new apparatus is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse, approximately 1 metre (3.3 ft) in length and 1 metre (3.3 ft) in width, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface. This apparatus is thus considered safer than the vaulting horse used in the past. With the addition of this new, safer vaulting table, gymnasts are attempting more difficult vaults.^[22]

Uneven bars

[edit]

Main article: Uneven bars

On the uneven bars, gymnasts perform a timed routine on two parallel horizontal bars set at different heights. These bars are made of fiberglass covered in wood laminate to prevent them from breaking. In the past, bars were made of wood, but the bars were prone to breaking, providing an incentive to switch to newer technologies. The height of the bars may be adjusted by 5 centimetres (2.0 in) to the size needed by individual gymnasts, although the distance between bars cannot be changed for individual gymnasts in elite competition.

In the past, the uneven parallel bars were closer together. The bars have been moved increasingly further apart, allowing gymnasts to perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves that may pass over, under, and between the two bars. At the elite level, movements must pass through the handstand. Gymnasts often mount the uneven bars using a springboard or a small mat, and they may use chalk (MgCO₃) and grips (a leather strip with holes for fingers to protect hands and improve performance) when performing this event. The chalk helps take the moisture out of gymnasts’ hands to decrease friction and prevent rips (tears to the skin of the hands); dowel grips help gymnasts grip the bar.

Balance beam

[edit]

Main article: Balance beam

The gymnast performs a choreographed routine of up to 90 seconds in length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, somersaults, turns, and dance elements on a padded beam. The beam is 125 centimetres (4 ft 1 in) above the ground, 5 metres (16 ft 5 in) long, and 10.16 centimetres (4.00 in) wide.^[23] It can also be adjusted, to be raised higher or lower.

Floor

[edit]

Main article: Floor (gymnastics)

The event in gymnastics performed on the floor is called floor exercise. In the past, the floor exercise event was executed on the bare floor or mats such as wrestling mats. The floor event now occurs on a carpeted 12 metres (39 ft) x 12 metres (39 ft) square, usually consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs generally called a spring floor. This provides a firm surface that provides extra bounce or spring when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve greater height and a softer landing after the composed skill. Gymnasts perform a choreographed routine to music (without words) for up to 90 seconds. The routine should consist of tumbling passes, series of jumps, leaps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns, or pivots, on one foot. A gymnast can perform up to four tumbling passes, each of which usually includes at least one flight element without hand support.^[24]

Competitive events for men in artistic gymnastics

[edit]

Floor

[edit]

Main article: Floor (gymnastics)

Male gymnasts also perform on a 12 metres (39 ft) x 12 metres (39 ft) spring floor. A series of tumbling passes are performed to demonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance. Strength skills include circles, scales, and press handstands. Men’s floor routines usually have multiple passes that have to total between 60 and 70 seconds and are performed without music, unlike the women’s event. Rules require that male gymnasts touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine.

Pommel horse

[edit]

Main article: Pommel horse

The pommel horse consists of a horizontal body with two pommels, or handles. Gymnasts perform by using their hands to support themselves on the horse. A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single-leg and double-leg work. Single-leg skills are generally found in the form of scissors, an element often done on the pommels. Double leg work, however, is the main staple of this event. The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus. To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning (moores and spindles) or by straddling their legs (flares). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or landing after a handstand variation.

Still rings

[edit]

Main article: Rings (gymnastics)

The rings are suspended on wire cable from a point 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) from the floor. The gymnast grips the rings and must perform a routine demonstrating balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts may include two or three. A routine ends with a dismount.

Vault

[edit]

Main article: Vault (gymnastics)

Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a maximum of 25 metres (82 ft) runway in length, before hurdling onto a springboard. They then land momentarily inverted on the hands-on the vaulting horse or vaulting table (pre-flight segment) and propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing (post-flight segment). In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added in the post-flight segment before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, how well they stuck the landing, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults.

Parallel bars

[edit]

Main article: Parallel bars

Men perform on two bars set in parallel by executing a series of swings, balances, and releases that require great strength and coordination. The width between the bars is adjustable depending upon the actual needs of the gymnasts, and the bars are usually 2 metres (6.6 ft) high.

Horizontal bar

[edit]

Main article: Horizontal bar

A 2.8 centimetres (1.1 in) thick steel bar raised 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) is raised the landing area. The gymnast holds on to the bar and performs giant swings or giants (forward or backward revolutions around the bar in the handstand position), release skills, twists, and changes of direction. By using the momentum from giants and then releasing at the proper point, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back salto. Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a grip on the bar, and to prevent rips. While training for this event, straps are often used to ensure that the gymnasts do not fall off the bar as they are learning new skills.

Rhythmic gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Rhythmic gymnastics

According to FIG rules, only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics. This is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic.^[25] Gymnasts compete either as individuals or in groups. Individuals perform four separate routines, each using one of the four apparatuses—ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, and formerly, rope—on a floor area. Groups consist of five gymnasts who perform two routines together, one with five of the same apparatus and one with three of one apparatus and two of another; the FIG defines which apparatuses groups use each year.

Routines are given three sub-scores: difficulty, execution, and artistry. Difficulty is open-ended and based on the value given to the elements performed in the routine, and execution and artistry start at ten points and are lowered for specific mistakes made by the gymnasts. The three sub-scores are added together for the final score for each routine.^[26]

International competitions are split between Juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth, and Seniors, for women sixteen and over. Gymnasts in Russia and Europe typically start training at a very young age and those at their peak are typically in their late teens (15–19) or early twenties. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, European Championships, World Cup and Grand Prix series. The first World Championships were held in 1963, and rhythmic gymnastics made its first appearance at the Olympics in 1984.^[27]

Rhythmic gymnastics apparatus

[edit]

BallThe ball may be made of rubber or a similar synthetic material, and it can be of any color. It should rest in the gymnast’s hand and not be pressed against the wrist or grasped with the fingers, which incurs a penalty. Fundamental elements of a ball routine include bouncing or rolling the ball.HoopThe hoop comes up to about the gymnast’s hip. It may be made of plastic or wood, and it may be covered with adhesive tape either of the same or different color as the hoop, which may be in decorative patterns. Fundamental requirements of a hoop routine include rotation of the hoop around the hand or body, rolling the hoop on the body or floor, and the gymnast passing through the hoop.RibbonThe ribbon consists of a handle, which may be made of wood, bamboo, or synthetic materials such as fiberglass, and the ribbon itself, which is made of satin. The ribbon is six meters long, and due to its length, it can easily become tangled or knotted; knots must be undone or the gymnast will be penalized. Fundamental elements of a ribbon routine consist of making continuous shapes with the length of the fabric, such as tight circles (spirals) or waves (snakes), and elements called boomerangs, in which the gymnast tosses the handle, then pulls it back by the end of the ribbon and catches it.ClubsThe clubs may be made of wood or synthetic materials, and they are always used in a pair. They may be connected together by inserting the end of one club into the head of the other. The handles and bodies are typically wrapped with decorative tapes. Fundamental elements of a clubs routine including swinging the heads of the clubs in circles, small throws in which the clubs rotate in the air, and asymmetrical movements.RopeThe rope is made from hemp or a similar synthetic material; it can be knotted and have anti-slip material at the ends, but it does not have handles. The fundamental requirements of a rope routine include leaping and skipping. In 2011, the FIG decided to eliminate the use of rope in senior individual rhythmic gymnastics competitions. It is still sometimes seen in junior group competition.

Men’s rhythmic gymnastics

[edit]

There are two versions of rhythmic gymnastics for men, neither of which is currently recognized by the FIG. One was developed in Japan in the 1940s and was originally practiced by both boys and girls for fitness, with women still occasionally participating on the club level today. Gymnasts either perform in groups with no apparatus, or individually with apparatus (stick, clubs, rope, or double rings). Unlike women’s rhythmic gymnastics, it is performed on a sprung floor, and the gymnasts perform acrobatic moves and flips.^[28] The other version was developed in Europe and uses generally the same rules as the women and the same set of apparatus. It is most prominent in Spain, which has held national men’s competitions since 2009 and mixed-gender group competitions since 2021, and France.^[29][30]

Trampolining

[edit]

Main article: Trampolining

Trampolining

[edit]

Trampolining and tumbling consists of four events, individual and synchronized trampoline, double mini trampoline, and tumbling (also known as power tumbling or rod floor). Since 2000, individual trampoline has been included in the Olympic Games. The first World Championships were held in 1964.

Individual trampoline

[edit]

Individual routines in trampolining involve a build-up phase, during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten bounces without pause during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points. Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves and the length of time taken to complete the ten skills which is an indication of the average height of the jumps. In high level competitions, there are two preliminary routines, one which has only two moves scored for difficulty and one where the athlete is free to perform any routine. This is followed by a final routine, which is again optional (that is, the gymnast is allowed to perform whichever skills they choose). Some competitions restart the score from zero for the finals, while others add the final score to the preliminary results.

Synchronized trampoline

[edit]

Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronization as well as the form and difficulty of the moves.

Double-mini trampoline

[edit]

Main article: Double mini trampoline

Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up; two scoring moves are performed per routine. Moves cannot be repeated in the same order on the double-mini during a competition. Skills can be repeated if a skill is competed as a mounter in one routine and a dismount in another. The scores are marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline.

Tumbling

[edit]

Main article: Tumbling (sport)

In tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling track. Scoring is similar to trampolining. Tumbling was originally contested as one of the events in Men’s Artistic Gymnastics at the 1932 Summer Olympics, and in 1955 and 1959 at the Pan American Games. From 1974 to 1998 it was included as an event for both genders at the Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships. The event has also been contested since 1976 at the Trampoline and Tumbling World Championships.

Tumbling is competed along a 25-metre sprung tack with a 10-metre run up. A tumbling pass or run is a combination of 8 skills, with an entry skill, normally a round-off, to whips (similar to a handspring without hand support) and into an end skill. Usually the end skill is the hardest skill of the pass. At the highest level, gymnasts perform transitional skills. These are skills which are not whips, but are double or triple somersaults (usually competed at the end of the run), but now competed in the middle of the run connected before and after by either a whip or a flick.

Competition is made up of a qualifying round and a finals round. There are two different types of competition in tumbling, individual and team. In the team event three gymnasts out of a team of four compete one run each, if one run fails the final member of the team is allowed to compete with the three highest scores being counted. In the individual event qualification, the competitor will compete two runs, one a straight pass (including double and triple somersaults) and a twisting pass (including full twisting whips and combination skills such as a full twisting double straight ‘full in back’). In the final of the individual event, the competitor must compete two different runs which can be either twisting or straight but each run normally uses both types (using transition skills).

Acrobatic gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Acrobatic gymnastics

Acrobatic gymnastics (formerly sport acrobatics), often referred to as acro, acrobatic sports or simply sports acro, is a group gymnastic discipline for both men and women. Acrobats perform to music in groups of two, three and four.

There are four international age categories: 11–16, 12–18, 13–19, and Senior (15+), which are used in the World Championships and many other events around the world, including the European Championships and the World Games.

All levels require a balance routine, which focuses on held balance skills, and a dynamic routine, which focuses on flipping elements; 12–18, 13–19, and Seniors are also required to perform a final (combined) routine.

Currently, acrobatic gymnastics scores are marked out of 30.00 for juniors, and they can be higher at the Senior FIG level based on difficulty:

• Difficulty – An open score, which is the sum of the difficulty values of elements (valued from the tables of difficulties) successfully performed in an exercise, divided by 100. This score is unlimited in senior competitions.
• Execution – Judges give a score out of 10.00 for technical performance (how well the skills are executed), which is then doubled to emphasize its importance.
• Artistic – Judges give a score out of 10.00 for artistry (the overall performance of the routine, namely choreography).

There are five competitive event categories:

• Women’s Pairs
• Mixed Pairs
• Men’s Pairs
• Women’s Groups (3 women)
• Men’s Groups (4 men)

The World Championships have been held since 1974.

Aerobic gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Aerobic gymnastics

Aerobic gymnastics (formally sport aerobics) involves the performance of routines by individuals, pairs, trios, groups with 5 people, and aerobic dance and aerobic step (8 people). Strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic or balance skills are emphasized. Seniors perform routines on a 10 m (33 ft) x 10 m (33 ft) floor, with a smaller 7 m (23 ft) x 7 m (23 ft) floor used for younger participants. Routines last 70–90 seconds depending on the age of the participants and the routine category.^[31] The World Championships have been held since 1995.

The events consist of:

• Individual Women
• Individual Men
• Mixed Pairs
• Trios
• Groups
• Dance
• Step

Parkour

[edit]

Main article: Parkour

On 28 January 2018, parkour, also known as freerunning, was given the go-ahead to begin development as a FIG sport.^[32][33] The FIG was planning to run World Cup competitions from 2018 onwards.^{[needs update]} The first Parkour World Championships were planned for 2020, but were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic,^[34][35][36] and instead took place from 15 to 16 October 2022 in Tokyo, Japan.^[37]

The events consist of:

• Speedrun
• Freestyle

Para-gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Para-gymnastics

Para-gymnastics, gymnastics for disabled athletes with para-athletics classifications, was recognized as a new FIG discipline in October 2024.^[38] As an FIG discipline, it currently only covers artistic gymnastics.^[39]

Other disciplines

[edit]

The following disciplines are not currently recognized by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique.

Aesthetic group gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Aesthetic group gymnastics

Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (AGG) was developed from the Finnish “naisvoimistelu”. It differs from rhythmic gymnastics in that body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger, and athletes do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions. The sport requires physical qualities such as flexibility, balance, speed, strength, coordination and sense of rhythm where movements of the body are emphasized through the flow, expression and aesthetic appeal. A good performance is characterized by uniformity and simultaneity. The competition program consists of versatile and varied body movements, such as body waves, swings, balances, pivots, jumps and leaps, dance steps, and lifts. The International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (IFAGG) was established in 2003.^[40] The first Aesthetic Group Gymnastics World Championships was held in 2000.^[41]

TeamGym

[edit]

Main article: TeamGym

TeamGym is a form of competition created by the European Union of Gymnastics, originally named EuroTeam. The first official competition was held in Finland in 1996. TeamGym events consist of three sections: women, men and mixed teams. Athletes compete in three different disciplines: floor, tumbling and trampette. Teams require effective teamwork and tumbling technique.^[42] There is no World Championships; however, there has been a European Championships held since 2010.^[43]

Wheel gymnastics

[edit]

Main article: Wheel gymnastics

Wheel gymnasts do exercises in a large wheel known as the Rhönrad, gymnastics wheel, gym wheel, or German wheel. It has also been known as the ayro wheel, aero wheel, and Rhon rod.

There are four core categories of exercise: straight line, spiral, vault and cyr wheel. The first World Championships was held in 1995.^[44]

Mallakhamba

[edit]

Main article: Mallakhamba

Mallakhamba (Marathi: मल्लखम्ब) is a traditional Indian sport in which a gymnast performs feats and poses in concert with a vertical wooden pole or rope. The word also refers to the pole used in the sport.

Mallakhamba derives from the terms malla which denotes a wrestler and khamba which means a pole. Mallakhamba can therefore be translated to English as “pole gymnastics”.^[45] On 9 April 2013, the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh declared mallakhamba as the state sport. In February 2019 the first Mallahkhamb World Championship was held in Mumbai

Non-competitive gymnastics

[edit]

General gymnastics, also known as “gymnastics for all”, enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance groups of 6 to more than 150 athletes. They can perform synchronized, choreographed routines. Troupes may consist of both genders and are separated into age divisions. The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial World Gymnaestrada, which was first held in 1939. In 1984 gymnastics for all was officially recognized first as a sport program by the FIG (International Gymnastic Federation), and subsequently by national gymnastic federations worldwide with participants that now number 30 million. Non-competitive gymnastics is considered useful for its health benefits.^[46]

Scoring (code of points)

[edit]

Main article: Code of Points

An artistic gymnast’s score comes from deductions taken from the start value of a routine’s elements. The start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements. The composition requirements are different for each apparatus. This score is called the D score.^[47] Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from a maximum of 10.0. This score is called the E score.^[48] The final score is calculated by adding the D and E score.^[49]

The current method of scoring, by adding D and E score to give the final score has been in place since 2006.^[50] The current method is called “open-end” scoring because there is no theoretical cap (although there is practical cap) to the D-score and hence the total possible score for a routine.^[51] Before 2006, a gymnast’s final score is deducted from a possible maximum of 10 for a routine.

A Code of Points or guidelines of scoring a routine’s difficulty and execution is slightly revised for each quadrennium, or period of four years culminating in the Olympics year.

Former apparatus and events

[edit]

Rope climbing

[edit]

Main article: Rope climbing

Generally, competitors climbed either a 6 m (20 ft) or an 8 m (26 ft) long, 38 mm (1.5 in) diameter natural fiber rope for speed, starting from a seated position on the floor and using only the hands and arms. Kicking the legs was normally permitted. Many gymnasts can do this in the straddle or pike position, which eliminates the help generated from the legs, though it can be done with legs as well.

Flying rings

[edit]

Main article: Flying rings

Flying rings was an event similar to still rings, but with the performer executing a series of stunts while swinging. It was a gymnastic event sanctioned by both the NCAA and the AAU until the early 1960s.

Club swinging

[edit]

Club swinging, a.k.a. Indian clubs, was an event in men’s artistic gymnastics sometime up until the 1950s. It was similar to the clubs in both women’s and men’s rhythmic gymnastics, but much simpler, with few throws allowed. It was included in the 1904 and 1932 Summer Olympic Games.

Other (men’s artistic)

[edit]

• Team horizontal bar and parallel bar in the 1896 Summer Olympics
• Team free and Swedish system in the 1912 and 1920 Summer Olympics
• Combined and triathlon in the 1904 Summer Olympics
• Side horse vault in 1924 Summer Olympics
• Tumbling in the 1932 Summer Olympics

Other (women’s artistic)

[edit]

• Team exercise at the 1928, 1936, and 1948 Summer Olympics
• Parallel bars at the 1938 World Championships
• Team portable apparatus at the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics

Health and safety

[edit]

Gymnastics is one of the most dangerous sports, with a very high injury rate seen in girls age 11 to 18.^[52]

Some gymnastic movements which were allowed in past competitions are now banned for safety reasons; for example, the Thomas salto, a twisting salto landed with a forward roll on the floor, was banned after several injuries. Elena Mukhina, the 1978 World all-around champion, broke her neck while practicing the skill in an exhausted state and became quadriplegic.^[53] The vaulting table replaced the old vaulting horse in the early 2000s and an additional mat was added around the springboard for safety reasons after several female gymnasts, such as Julissa Gomez, became paralyzed during vaulting attempts.^[54]

Landing

[edit]

In a tumbling pass, dismount, or vault, landing is the final phase, following take-off and flight^[55] This is a critical skill in terms of execution in competition scores, general performance, and injury occurrence. Without the necessary magnitude of energy dissipation during impact, the risk of sustaining injuries during somersaulting increases. These injuries commonly occur at the lower extremities such as cartilage lesions, ligament tears, and bone bruises/fractures.^[56] To avoid such injuries, and to receive a high-performance score, proper technique must be used by the gymnast. “The subsequent ground contact or impact landing phase must be achieved using a safe, aesthetic, and well-executed double foot landing.”^[57] A successful landing in gymnastics is classified as soft, meaning the knee and hip joints are at greater than 63 degrees of flexion.^[55]

A higher flight phase results in a higher vertical ground reaction force. Vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) represents an external force which the gymnasts have to overcome with their muscle force and affects the gymnasts’ linear and angular momentum. Another important variable that affects linear and angular momentum is the time the landing takes. Gymnasts can decrease the impact force by increasing the time taken to perform the landing. Gymnasts can achieve this by increasing hip, knee and ankle amplitude.^[55]

Podium training

[edit]

Podium training refers to the official practice session before a gymnastics competition begins. The purpose of this is to enable competing gymnasts to get a feel for the competition equipment inside the arena in which they will be competing,^[58] primarily for reasons of safety.

Physical injuries

[edit]

Compared to athletes who play other sports, gymnasts are at higher than average risk of overuse injuries and injuries caused by early sports specialization among children and young adults.^[59][60] Gymnasts are at particular risk of foot and wrist injuries.^[61][62] Strength training can help prevent injuries.

Abuse

[edit]

There have been recorded cases of emotional and sexual abuse in gymnastics in many different countries.^[63] The USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal is considered one of the largest abuse scandals in sports history.^[64] In 2022, the Whyte Review was published, criticizing extensive abusive practices by British Gymnastics that included sexual and emotional abuse and excessive weight management of athletes.^[65]

Height concerns

[edit]

Gymnasts tend to have short stature, but it is unlikely that the sport affects their growth. Parents of gymnasts tend also to be shorter than average.^[52]